The Philosophy of Science and The Problem of Confirming Scientific Essay

The Philosophy of Science and The Problem of Confirming Scientific Hypotheses - Essay Example What philosophy of science does is to examine these concepts and to ask questions about them. In this essay, I shall focus on the problem of understanding how observation and theory confirm scientific hypotheses. â€Å"What connection between an observation and a theory makes that observation evidence for the theory† (Godfrey-Smith, 2003, p.39)? Herein, I shall argue that although science fails to provide certainty and reliability in confirming scientific hypotheses, a theory of confirmation is not impossible; what is impossible is to model a scientific theory of confirmation to that of a formal theory of confirmation. In this light, despite the problems induction poses, confirming scientific hypotheses is necessarily inductive. Given this, I shall divide my paper into four main parts. The first part will discuss with the problem of confirmation in relation to induction. Herein, I shall discuss David Hume’s (1978) problem of induction, a theory closely related to the pr oblem of confirming scientific hypotheses. The second part will discuss the theory of confirmation in relation to scientific explanations. Herein, Carl Hempel’s (1965) model for scientific explanation will be emphasized. In the third section, I shall focus on Nelson Goodman’s (1983) â€Å"new riddle of induction.†... Confirmation and Induction â€Å"The confirmation of theories is closely connected to another classic issue in philosophy: the problem of induction† (Godfrey-Smith, 2003, p. 39). Scientists reason inductively in order to confirm their hypotheses. But does it mean to reason inductively? An Inductive argument on the other hand is one wherein even if the premises are true, the conclusion can only be probably true. For example: The swan I saw last Monday was white. The swan I saw last Tuesday was white. The swan I saw last Wednesday was white. Therefore, all swans are white. Given the said example, it can be said that the conclusion, â€Å"all swans are white† is not a conclusion that is absolutely true, because its contrary is possible. Case in point, in Australia, there are swans, which are black. This in effect, questions the validity of the conclusion. Now according to scientists, it is better to reason deductively rather than inductively, because in deductive reasoning , we can be certain if we start with true premises, the analysis will be true as well. Inductive reasoning can take us to false contradictions. Now the problem of induction is magnified in Hume’s (1978) â€Å"problem of induction.† Here, Hume uses the process of induction to question inductive reasoning itself. To his view, how sure are we that induction works? Just because induction worked in the past, it does not follow that induction will work in the future or in reference to future events. Hume’s view is founded on his explanation of the uniformity of nature. This assumes the rational order of the universe. This type of order is characterized in a spectrum of regularities wherein the events and relations among things that we have not examined yet, will be the same

The Civil Rights Revolutions of the 60s Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Civil Rights Revolutions of the 60s - Essay Example Since then, leaders and critics have already ceaselessly demanded that people, regardless of race and gender, should be accorded the respect that Whites have so far exclusively enjoyed. However, it was only during the 1960s when black Americans collectively demanded on the street, in churches and dialogues their rights as citizens under the United States Constitution. This mass movement was sparked by several important developments such as the efforts of four Southern students who initiated the Woolworth lunch counter to protest racial discrimination. (Farber and Bailey, p. 13) Then, there was also the Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v. Board of Education, 1954-1955, wherein it was found that school segregation was unconstitutional. (Sargent, p. 2) Finally, there was also the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. What was originally intended as anti-racial discrimination movement, the Rights Revolution came to cover several other issues that made the movements complic ated and far-reaching, especially in the context of reforms achieved. There was the clamor for economic, political and cultural policy-reforms, effectively highlighting the manner by which the Rights movements took the cudgels for several other causes.

Cancer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 4

Cancer - Essay Example Cancer was initially completely untreatable. With medical advances, such as autopsies, anesthesia and the microscope, scientific oncology was born. Finally, in the eighteenth century, the understanding of molecular epidemiology led to the modern study and treatment of cancer (American Cancer Society). The origin of cancer lies in abnormal cell division. In normal cell division, new cells are produced as and when needed for a healthy body and when cells become old or damaged, they die and are replaced with new cells. Sometimes, there is damage to the cell DNA, the basic material in genes. These defective genes may be caused by mutations or may also be inherited. Instead of dying, these damaged cells lead to the formation of groups of malignant clones, or duplicates of the abnormal cells. These groups form a mass of tissue called a  tumor. A benign tumor is harmless and its cells do not spread to other parts of the body. A malignant tumor is cancerous. Its cells invade adjoining tissues and spread to other parts of the body in a process called metastasis. Cancer cells spread through the blood and lymph systems. There are more than 100 different types of cancer. The main types of cancer are: Carcinoma - cancer which originates in the skin or the lining of tissues; Sarcoma – cancer which begins in in bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels, or other connective or supportive tissue; Leukemia – cancer in the blood and bone marrow; Lymphoma and myeloma  - cancers that begin in the cells of the  immune system; Central nervous system cancers  - cancers that begin in the tissues of the brain and spinal cord (National Cancer Institute). The types of cancer are named according to the name of the organ or tissue in which they originate. The main types are: Adenoid Cystic Carcinoma, Adrenal Gland Tumor, Amyloidosis (blood), Anal Cancer, Appendix Cancer, Astrocytoma

MECHANISMS FOR EVALUATING FINANCIAL HEALTH OF HEALTH CARE Essay - 1

MECHANISMS FOR EVALUATING FINANCIAL HEALTH OF HEALTH CARE ORGANIZATIONS CS - Essay Example The total revenue for Pearland Medical Center reduced by $250,000,000 in the year 2013, compared to the revenue the firm had generated in the year 2012. At the same time, the operating expenses reduced by $200,000,000, which means that the net income of Pearland Medical Center reduced by $50,000,000 between the two years. The net revenue for 2012 and 2013 was $915,000,000 and $865,000,000 respectively. On the other hand, the total profit for the same period was $965,000,000 and $915,000,000 for 2012 and 2013 respectively. The cash flow of the Medical Center was equal to the total profit of the company since the inflow of the business was only through revenue and the cash outflow was through marketing, operating, research and education expenses. However, sinceBut depreciation is a non-cash flow item in this scenario, it should be used to establish the total profit and the net cash flow of Pearland Medical Center (Fridson & Alvarez, 2011). The profit margin measures how much every dollar revenue a firm keeps in its earnings (Albrecht & Albrecht, 2008). The total profit margin of the firm stood at 69% and 61% in 2013 and 2012 respectively. This means that the firm realized a net percentage of $0.69 and $0.61 for every dollar of sales. This showed that Pearland Medical Center’s ability to control its expenses, improved in 2013 as compared to 2012, and it is attributed to a reduction in operating expenses by $200,000,000. On the other hand, the total profit margin, excluding grants and investments, stood at 59% and 48% in 2013 and 2012 respectively. This implied that the firm’s earnings from every dollar it had invested reduced to 0.59 and 0.48 per dollar as a result of the exclusion of grants and investment in its revenue. Based on the income statement report, the firms financial health is not badly off because Pearland medical center made some positive returns from its investments. But if they are

Human Systems - Respiration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Human Systems - Respiration - Essay Example It provides the energy needed by cells of the body. The following diagram shows the structure of the human respiratory system. The air then passes onto the interior of the nose called the Nasal Cavity/ Passage. It is lined with a sticky mucous membrane and contains tiny, surface hairs called cilia. The mucus and cilia collect dust, bacteria, and other particles in the air.   The mucus also helps in moistening the air.   Under the mucous membrane there are a large number of capillaries.   The blood within these capillaries helps to warm the air as it passes through the nose. Thus, the nasal cavity serves as a moistener, a filter, and to warm up  the air before it reaches the lungs. Then comes the Pharynx, or the throat, which is followed by the Larynx, which is the voice-box. There are two pairs of membranes that are stretched across the inside of the larynx called the vocal cords. When air is expired, these cords vibrate and by controlling these vibrations, one is able to produce different sounds. Also, epiglottis, a cartilaginous flap prevents food from entering the wind-pipe during swallowing. Both the pharynx and larynx form part of the respiratory tract. The larynx opens up into the Trachea, or the wind pipe. The trachea is a tube approximately 12 cm in length and 2.5 cm wide.   Rings of cartilage within its walls prevent it from collapsing during expiration. It is also covered with a ciliated mucous membrane, which keeps foreign particles and mucus out. The trachea divides into two cartilage-ringed tubes called Bronchi. Also lined with ciliated cells, they form the two main passages for entry of air into the lungs. After entering the lungs, the bronchi divide and spread in a tree-like manner into smaller tubes called Bronchial Tubes. The bronchial tubes divide and then subdivide, becoming thinner and having less and less cartilage in their walls.   Eventually, they become a tiny group of

Relationship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Relationship - Essay Example It puts us in a category of our own where we see things from the same eyes, even though we are two separate individuals who have their own respective worldviews (Holt 2005). Even though Austin likes to communicate with me on a consistent level, I have always asked him to meet me more than calling me on the phone because I believe our friendship is on such a level that phone calls could just demean us in someway. Hence it is best that we enjoy each other’s company and this can only happen when we meet regularly. Some important things that govern and essentially define our relationship include the respect that we have for our elders and the love and support to our mutual friends and colleagues. Both of us like to interact with kids, which automatically make us people who like to hang around children quite a lot. Austin and I are known to be extroverts which implies for our comprehension that we like to go out more and more, and thus enjoy the festivities of eating out, partying by the beach as well as a range of other fun-filled activities (Azzarone 2003). We sincerely love the feeling of being close to one another because this is how we view life in its own meticulous way. It also makes us enjoy the world around us together. These important aspects developed with the passage of time as we started knowing each other more and thus we found out that our common traits were very uncommon amongst the people around us. The exceptional two that we were actually made us feel good about our own selves, which strengthened our friendship all the same. Our relationship is more supportive than being defensive at any point in time. This is because we understand each other quite well and it makes our lives easier in contrast to how other best friends live their lives. Our relationship has blossomed with the passage of time and I cannot recall a single instance where we ended up arguing between our selves. I believe this is because both of us respect one another and look up to our unity for the help and assistance that we so may require. Our relationship has thus become a potent force because our trust levels have been tied to who we are and how we view our friendship (White 2002). Some of the specific factors that contribute to the situations which take place on a day to day level comprise of our interaction with the people around us. We both believe in giving our best when it comes to our elders, since we respect them a lot. We always make an effort to help the underprivileged and needy around us, which is something that I and Austin gain satisfaction from. If ever there was a conflict between me and Austin, we would resolve it amicably. This is because both of us believe in keeping away from conflicts and rifts. Fortunately, we have never had a fight as yet which gives us the edge to understand each other better. This is one way to know how much respect I hold for Austin and likewise (Costley 2007). We may have difference of opinions but this has never transpired into conflicts and hence the duration is of no use as far as its mention is concerned. The strategies that we use to resolve conflict would essentially take into perspective listening to one another and giving the other individual the much needed space so that he can think through things and get back. It is an important consideration and both I and Austin are well aware of that. I believe these methods have been quite satisfactory as conflicts are something that can literally mar the basis of any

Unrequited Love Essay Example for Free

Unrequited Love Essay Everyone eventually meets the man or woman of their dreams. Whether it’s online or in your local grocery store, everyone is bound to meet their perfect match. According to Harville Hendrix, the author of the article The Mystery of Attraction, he mentions that there are three theories that he has noticed or have looked more into and he also has his own theory. The three theories that he mentions are as follows: biological theory, exchange theory, and the persona theory. When it comes to his own theory, Hendrix states that of the conscious theory. Although Hendrix provides in depth detail of the three theories, I do not agree in those theories and therefore believe in Hendrix’ own theory. The first theory that Hendrix describes is that of the biological theory, which means that women select men who are that of â€Å"alpha† qualities. They choose men who will provide for their future family or supply themselves with nourishment. Society makes men feel that they have all the weight on their shoulders and men are made to fulfill the manly duties. When I look for certain men, I choose men that have an attractive personality. Some people just choose the looks, but I focus more on the way he portrays himself in front of me and other people. My dating experience has been bumpy and slow these past years. I have only had one boyfriend and have learned nothing. As everyone always says that you always find your soul mate in college, I believe that to be true. As I have not found one yet, I still believe in that opinion. As I see everyone else going out with their boyfriends/girlfriends, it makes me feel sad. I was never much of a social person when it comes to meeting other people. Therefore, I do not agree with this theory because I believe that it is not all about choosing your mate on their physical traits, but more on their personality. The second theory Hendrix explains in detail is that of the exchange theory. He clarifies that the selection of our mates is determined by the equivalence of our choices. We focus more on the physical appearance rather than the personality he/she portrays. I have noticed that a lot in my eighteen years of life. A lot of my former friends and classmates would say, â€Å"Oh, he/she is hot, I am going to go for him/her! † They already pick out their â€Å"future† boyfriend/girlfriend at first sight. They try to get that guy/girl as close as to themselves as they can! Some go to extreme measures like the story my friend told me. This story was about a guy who carefully picked out his girlfriend on the beautiful qualities she possessed. He was dumbfounded on the perfect qualities she portrayed when they hung out. As he got to know her more, she was not as what she seemed to be. He realized that the beauty she possessed on the outside was not as pretty on the inside. She acted very horribly to him and treated him like he was garbage. After that, he focused more on the personality of a girl, rather than the beauty. Going off that story, I disagree with the exchange theory because if you go off this theory, it will lead to the destruction of love. The third and final theory that Hendrix concludes with is that of the persona theory. This theory states that whoever your mate is they should boost up your self-esteem when you are seen with this person. A persona, which is a second image we portray to other people, comes in effect when we are with our soul mate. We act a certain way around our boyfriend/girlfriend, but when we are around other people or in public, we tend to have a second personality towards them. It is sort of like a two faced person. Society likes to see an all-around good person in public. They do not like to see a person who is contradictory towards themself. Not being yourself is making yourself seem that you are not confident with your self-esteem and want to become this sort of person. Concluding with the final theory, I disagree with this theory because you are not supposed to be a second person around society but not portray the same self that you usually do around your boyfriend/girlfriend. Hendrix states 3 theories that do not seem to work. His own theory, the conscious theory, seems to go along to what seems to be the personality of the person, rather than the looks. Seeing my friends getting asked to prom and homecoming throughout my high school career was brutal. Always seeing them happy and having so much fun every time was horrible. Always being the third wheel was terrifying. Everyone experiences this sometime in their life, whether it is towards themselves or seeing it on television or in society. The internet is also a good way a person can meet their partner. It is so much easier online because you can pick out a guy that suits your specific needs. It will minimize to an amount that is perfect for viewing and you can even go on dates! It really gets you to know the guy without the looks, but focusing on the personality. The article states the theories that Hendrix explains are that of the biological, exchange and persona theories. He states that he observed the relationships between others and came up with these 3 theories. Even though I disagree with these 3 theories, I know I believe in the theory that Hendrix came up with on his own, which is the conscious theory. He says that people should not focus on the looks of the person, but rather the personality that the person possesses. I agree with Hendrix’s theory because your decision should not be based on the looks but more of the personality because it could go wrong in the end. In conclusion, the conscious theory is more of a better decision.